| Successful intervention is dependent on | | | | systems it is commonly accepted that a |
| finding the cause or causes of a | | | | child must start at the lower levels of |
| problem. Most problems can only be | | | | education and then gradually progress to |
| solved if one knows their causes. A | | | | the higher levels. If human learning had |
| disease such as scurvy claimed the lives | | | | not been a stratified process, if it had |
| of thousands of seamen during their long | | | | taken place on a single level, this |
| sea voyages. The disease was cured | | | | would have been unnecessary. It would |
| fairly quickly once the cause was | | | | then not have been important to start a |
| discovered, viz. a Vitamin C deficiency. | | | | child in first grade. It would have been |
| A viable point of departure would | | | | possible for the child to enter school |
| therefore be to ask the question, | | | | at any level and to complete the school |
| “What causes learning disabilities?” | | | | years in any order. |
| In the literature on learning | | | | Even more astounding is that this very |
| disabilities, it is generally assumed | | | | important principle of learning is |
| that learning disabilities are caused by | | | | hardly noted in any of the present-day |
| a neurological dysfunction. This theory | | | | theories on learning. In fact, when this |
| has so far, however, been unable to | | | | principle of learning is mentioned, it |
| produce any tangible practical results. | | | | often happens by way of an en passant |
| Another popular theory is that learning | | | | reference to discarded notions from the |
| disabilities are genetically | | | | past: |
| transmitted. According to an American | | | | Baldwin (1896) introduced the concept of |
| study the risk that a child will have a | | | | a hierarchy of senses and proposed that |
| reading problem is increased from four | | | | sense perception ability varied from |
| to thirteen times if one of the parents | | | | person to person. As we ascend Baldwin's |
| has a similar problem. This tendency for | | | | pyramidal scale we find that each |
| learning disabilities to “run in | | | | capability rests on, and is |
| families” has been confirmed by | | | | chronologically and psychologically |
| numerous studies. | | | | dependent on, all the capabilities below |
| The tendency for learning disabilities | | | | it (for example imagination, which could |
| to “run in families” does not | | | | not act but for its predecessors |
| necessarily prove, however, that a | | | | perception and memory). This notion of |
| learning disability is genetically | | | | training competencies hierarchically was |
| determined. The ability to speak English | | | | the premise on which perceptual training |
| also runs in families, yet nobody would | | | | and perceptual motor training were |
| attribute this to genetics. We all know | | | | based. |
| that a child learns to speak the | | | | When this principle is noticed, then its |
| language that he hears on a daily basis. | | | | significance is often distorted by |
| A straight line is the shortest distance | | | | reductionist thinking such as, |
| between two points. However, the | | | | “Cognitive abilities develop in a |
| seemingly shortest route from one | | | | sequential fashion that cannot be |
| conclusion to the next is not | | | | altered,” or, “Another prerequisite |
| necessarily the best — or the correct | | | | for reading includes a certain level of |
| — one. It sometimes turns out that a | | | | physiological development of the |
| problem may have an explanation and a | | | | brain.” |
| solution that may seem so obvious and so | | | | The stratified nature of learning is an |
| simple that people tend to overlook it. | | | | age-old — but ageless — principle. |
| The theory below is of this nature. For | | | | This principle was already pointed out |
| its understanding one requires no | | | | by Herbart (1776-1841), and it is based |
| specialist knowledge of the intricacies | | | | on the further principle that |
| of the human brain. Decades of | | | | One never…apprehends anything in |
| experience has shown that for the | | | | isolation, but always in terms of one's |
| successful application of this theory | | | | background of previous experience and |
| one does not even need to have the | | | | learning. So the first consideration in |
| vaguest inkling of what genetics is | | | | properly organized learning would be to |
| about. | | | | make sure that the learner had the right |
| In this theory it is not denied that the | | | | background (my italics). |
| brains of learning-disabled people might | | | | A simpler example, which explains the |
| be different from the non-learning | | | | stratified nature of learning, is the |
| disabled. In fact, it is conceded that | | | | fact that one has to learn to count |
| they probably are. The | | | | before it becomes possible to learn to |
| “chicken-and-egg” problem should, | | | | add and subtract. Suppose one tried to |
| however, not be overlooked: are the | | | | teach a child, who had not yet learned |
| brain differences the cause of the | | | | to count, to add and subtract. This |
| learning disabilities, or is it the | | | | would be quite impossible and no amount |
| other way round? Furthermore, in this | | | | of effort would ever succeed in teaching |
| theory it is conceded that genes may | | | | the child these skills. The child must |
| well play a role in the origin of | | | | learn to count first, before it becomes |
| learning disabilities. However, I hold | | | | possible for him to learn to add and |
| the optimistic view that neurological | | | | subtract. In the same way, there are |
| differences and negative genetics merely | | | | things that a child must learn first, |
| increase the educational responsibility | | | | before it becomes possible for him to |
| of parents and teachers. A learning | | | | learn to read, spell, write, et cetera. |
| disability is therefore not a permanent | | | | Bartoli, who says that it is “the |
| condition. By following the correct | | | | actual practice with the real task of |
| method of instruction and with sustained | | | | reading that leads to more skilful |
| practice according to this method, any | | | | reading,” is only partially correct. |
| person can overcome a learning | | | | “Of course,” she adds, “any |
| disability. | | | | soccer, tennis, or basketball coach will |
| THE CAUSES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES: AN | | | | tell you the same thing: If you want to |
| ALTERNATIVE THEORY | | | | get better, you have to play the game |
| To understand this theory on the causes | | | | — not just practice skill drills.” |
| of learning disabilities it is important | | | | Now, I know very little about tennis and |
| to take note of the fact that there is | | | | basketball, but I do happen to know |
| nothing that any human being knows, or | | | | about soccer. The game of soccer |
| can do, that he has not learned. If you | | | | consists of many fragmented elements or |
| dump a little puppy into the water, it | | | | skills — passing, control, shooting, |
| will swim. Do the same with a human | | | | dribbling, goal keeping and heading. |
| child, and it will drown. The child must | | | | Before any child is expected to play in |
| learn to swim. | | | | a full-game situation, he should first |
| There is yet another, equally important | | | | be trained to pass, head, control, |
| fact, which is also a sine qua non | | | | dribble and shoot the ball. In fact, |
| towards the understanding of learning | | | | until these skills have been |
| disabilities, and which has also so far | | | | automatized, the child will have two |
| been overlooked, viz. that learning is a | | | | left feet on the soccer field. |
| stratified process. This is a | | | | The reading “game,” just like the |
| self-evident fact, yet its significance | | | | game of soccer, rests upon certain |
| in the situation of the | | | | skills and until these skills have |
| learning-disabled child has apparently | | | | become automatized, the child will have |
| never been fully comprehended. | | | | “two left eyes” in the reading |
| Throughout the world in all educational | | | | situation. |