| The word "cognition" is defined as "the act of | | | | has already enjoyed. This implies that perception is a |
| knowing" or "knowledge." Cognitive skills therefore | | | | cognitive skill that can be improved tremendously |
| refer to those skills that make it possible for us to | | | | through judicious practice and experience.MEMORYA |
| know.It should be noted that there is nothing that | | | | variety of memory problems are evidenced in the |
| any human being knows, or can do, that he has not | | | | learning disabled. Some major categories of memory |
| learned. This of course excludes natural body | | | | functions wherein these problems lie are:Receptive |
| functions, such as breathing, as well as the reflexes, | | | | memory: This refers to the ability to note the |
| for example the involuntary closing of the eye when | | | | physical features of a given stimulus to be able to |
| an object approaches it. But apart from that a human | | | | recognize it at a later time. The child who has |
| being knows nothing, or cannot do anything, that he | | | | receptive processing difficulties invariably fails to |
| has not learned. Therefore, all cognitive skills must be | | | | recognize visual or auditory stimuli such as the shapes |
| TAUGHT, of which the following cognitive skills are | | | | or sounds associated with the letters of the |
| the most important:CONCENTRATIONPaying | | | | alphabet, the number system, etc.Sequential memory: |
| attention must be distinguished from concentration. | | | | This refers to the ability to recall stimuli in their order |
| Paying attention is a body function, and therefore | | | | of observation or presentation. Many dyslexics have |
| does not need to be taught. However, paying | | | | poor visual sequential memory. Naturally this will |
| attention as such is a function that is quite useless | | | | affect their ability to read and spell correctly. After |
| for the act of learning, because it is only a fleeting | | | | all, every word consists of letters in a specific |
| occurrence. Attention usually shifts very quickly from | | | | sequence. In order to read one has to perceive the |
| one object or one thing to the next. The child must | | | | letters in sequence, and also remember what word is |
| first be taught to focus his attention on something | | | | represented by that sequence of letters. By simply |
| and to keep his attention focused on this something | | | | changing the sequence of the letters in "name" it can |
| for some length of time. When a person focuses his | | | | become "mean" or "amen". Some also have poor |
| attention for any length of time, we refer to it as | | | | auditory sequential memory, and therefore may be |
| concentration.Concentration rests on two legs. First, it | | | | unable to repeat longer words orally without getting |
| is an act of will and cannot take place automatically. | | | | the syllables in the wrong order, for example words |
| Second, it is also a cognitive skill, and therefore has | | | | like "preliminary" and "statistical".Rote memory: This |
| to be taught.Although learning disability specialists | | | | refers to the ability to learn certain information as a |
| acknowledge that "the ability to concentrate and | | | | habit pattern. The child who has problems in this area |
| attend to a task for a prolonged period of time is | | | | is unable to recall with ease those responses which |
| essential for the student to receive necessary | | | | should have been automatic, such as the alphabet, |
| information and complete certain academic activities," | | | | the number system, multiplication tables, spelling rules, |
| it seems that the ability to concentrate is regarded | | | | grammatical rules, etc.Short-term memory: |
| as a "fafrotsky" -- a word coined by Ivan T. | | | | Short-term memory lasts from a few seconds to a |
| Sanderson, and standing for "things that FAll FROm | | | | minute; the exact amount of time may vary |
| The SKY." Concentration must be taught, after which | | | | somewhat. When you are trying to recall a telephone |
| one's proficiency can be constantly improved by | | | | number that was heard a few seconds earlier, the |
| regular and sustained practice.PERCEPTIONThe terms | | | | name of a person who has just been introduced, or |
| "processing" and "perception" are often used | | | | the substance of the remarks just made by a |
| interchangeably.Before one can learn anything, | | | | teacher in class, you are calling on short-term |
| perception must take place, i.e. one has to become | | | | memory. You need this kind of memory to retain |
| aware of it through one of the senses. Usually one | | | | ideas and thoughts when writing a letter, since you |
| has to hear or see it. Subsequently one has to | | | | must be able to keep the last sentence in mind as |
| interpret whatever one has seen or heard. In | | | | you compose the next. You also need this kind of |
| essence then, perception means interpretation. Of | | | | memory when you work on problems. Suppose a |
| course, lack of experience may cause a person to | | | | problem required that we first add two numbers |
| misinterpret what he has seen or heard. In other | | | | together (step 1: add 15 + 27) and next divide the |
| words, perception represents our apprehension of a | | | | sum (step 2: divide sum by 2). If we did this problem |
| present situation in terms of our past experiences, | | | | in our heads, we would need to retain the result of |
| or, as stated by the philosopher Immanuel Kant | | | | step 1 (42) momentarily, while we apply the next |
| (1724-1804): "We see things not as they are but as | | | | step (divide by 2). Some space in our short-term |
| we are."The following situation will illustrate how | | | | memory is necessary to retain the results of step |
| perception correlates with previous | | | | 1.Long-term memory: This refers to the ability to |
| experience:Suppose a person parked his car and | | | | retrieve information of things learned in the past.Until |
| walks away from it while continuing to look back at | | | | the learning disabled develop adequate skills in recalling |
| it. As he goes further and further away from his car, | | | | information, they will continue to face each learning |
| it will appear to him as if his car is gradually getting | | | | situation as though it is a new one. No real progress |
| smaller and smaller. In such a situation none of us, | | | | can be attained by either the child or the teacher |
| however, would gasp in horror and cry out, "My car | | | | when the same ground has to be covered over and |
| is shrinking!" Although the sensory perception is that | | | | over because the child has forgotten. It would |
| the car is shrinking rapidly, we do not interpret that | | | | appear that the most critical need that the learning |
| the car is changing size. Through past experiences | | | | disabled have is to be helped to develop an effective |
| we have learned that objects do not grow or shrink | | | | processing system for remembering, because without |
| as we walk toward or away from them. You have | | | | it their performance will always remain at a level |
| learned that their actual size remains constant, | | | | much below what their capabilities indicate.Strangely, |
| despite the illusion. Even when one is five blocks | | | | though, while memory is universally considered a |
| away from one's car and it seems no larger than | | | | prerequisite skill to successful learning, attempts to |
| one's fingernail, one would interpret it as that it is still | | | | delineate its process in the learning disabled are few, |
| one's car and that it hasn't actually changed size. This | | | | and fewer still are methods to systematically improve |
| learned perception is known as size | | | | it.LOGICAL THINKINGIn his book "Brain Building" Dr. |
| constancy.Pygmies, however, who live deep in the | | | | Karl Albrecht states that logical thinking is not a |
| rain forests of tropical Africa, are not often exposed | | | | magical process or a matter of genetic endowment, |
| to wide vistas and distant horizons, and therefore do | | | | but a learned mental process. It is the process in |
| not have sufficient opportunities to learn size | | | | which one uses reasoning consistently to come to a |
| constancy. One Pygmy, removed from his usual | | | | conclusion. Problems or situations that involve logical |
| environment, was convinced he was seeing a swarm | | | | thinking call for structure, for relationships between |
| of insects when he was actually looking at a herd of | | | | facts, and for chains of reasoning that "make |
| buffalo at a great distance. When driven toward the | | | | sense."The basis of all logical thinking is sequential |
| animals he was frightened to see the insects "grow" | | | | thought, says Dr. Albrecht. This process involves |
| into buffalo and was sure that some form of | | | | taking the important ideas, facts, and conclusions |
| witchcraft had been at work.A person needs to | | | | involved in a problem and arranging them in a |
| INTERPRET sensory phenomena, and this can only | | | | chain-like progression that takes on a meaning in and |
| be done on the basis of past experience of the | | | | of itself. To think logically is to think in steps.Logical |
| same, similar or related phenomena. Perceptual ability, | | | | thinking is also an important foundational skill of math. |
| therefore, heavily depends upon the amount of | | | | "Learning mathematics is a highly sequential process," |
| perceptual practice and experience that the subject | | | | says Dr. Albrecht. |