| The word "cognition" is defined as "the | | | | invariably fails to recognize visual or |
| act of knowing" or "knowledge." | | | | auditory stimuli such as the shapes or |
| Cognitive skills therefore refer to | | | | sounds associated with the letters of |
| those skills that make it possible for | | | | the alphabet, the number system, etc. |
| us to know. | | | | Sequential memory: This refers to the |
| It should be noted that there is nothing | | | | ability to recall stimuli in their order |
| that any human being knows, or can do, | | | | of observation or presentation. Many |
| that he has not learned. This of course | | | | dyslexics have poor visual sequential |
| excludes natural body functions, such as | | | | memory. Naturally this will affect their |
| breathing, as well as the reflexes, for | | | | ability to read and spell correctly. |
| example the involuntary closing of the | | | | After all, every word consists of |
| eye when an object approaches it. But | | | | letters in a specific sequence. In order |
| apart from that a human being knows | | | | to read one has to perceive the letters |
| nothing, or cannot do anything, that he | | | | in sequence, and also remember what word |
| has not learned. Therefore, all | | | | is represented by that sequence of |
| cognitive skills must be TAUGHT, of | | | | letters. By simply changing the sequence |
| which the following cognitive skills are | | | | of the letters in "name" it can become |
| the most important: | | | | "mean" or "amen". Some also have poor |
| CONCENTRATION | | | | auditory sequential memory, and |
| Paying attention must be distinguished | | | | therefore may be unable to repeat longer |
| from concentration. Paying attention is | | | | words orally without getting the |
| a body function, and therefore does not | | | | syllables in the wrong order, for |
| need to be taught. However, paying | | | | example words like "preliminary" and |
| attention as such is a function that is | | | | "statistical". |
| quite useless for the act of learning, | | | | Rote memory: This refers to the ability |
| because it is only a fleeting | | | | to learn certain information as a habit |
| occurrence. Attention usually shifts | | | | pattern. The child who has problems in |
| very quickly from one object or one | | | | this area is unable to recall with ease |
| thing to the next. The child must first | | | | those responses which should have been |
| be taught to focus his attention on | | | | automatic, such as the alphabet, the |
| something and to keep his attention | | | | number system, multiplication tables, |
| focused on this something for some | | | | spelling rules, grammatical rules, etc. |
| length of time. When a person focuses | | | | Short-term memory: Short-term memory |
| his attention for any length of time, we | | | | lasts from a few seconds to a minute; |
| refer to it as concentration. | | | | the exact amount of time may vary |
| Concentration rests on two legs. First, | | | | somewhat. When you are trying to recall |
| it is an act of will and cannot take | | | | a telephone number that was heard a few |
| place automatically. Second, it is also | | | | seconds earlier, the name of a person |
| a cognitive skill, and therefore has to | | | | who has just been introduced, or the |
| be taught. | | | | substance of the remarks just made by a |
| Although learning disability specialists | | | | teacher in class, you are calling on |
| acknowledge that "the ability to | | | | short-term memory. You need this kind of |
| concentrate and attend to a task for a | | | | memory to retain ideas and thoughts when |
| prolonged period of time is essential | | | | writing a letter, since you must be able |
| for the student to receive necessary | | | | to keep the last sentence in mind as you |
| information and complete certain | | | | compose the next. You also need this |
| academic activities," it seems that the | | | | kind of memory when you work on |
| ability to concentrate is regarded as a | | | | problems. Suppose a problem required |
| "fafrotsky" -- a word coined by Ivan T. | | | | that we first add two numbers together |
| Sanderson, and standing for "things that | | | | (step 1: add 15 + 27) and next divide |
| FAll FROm The SKY." Concentration must | | | | the sum (step 2: divide sum by 2). If we |
| be taught, after which one's proficiency | | | | did this problem in our heads, we would |
| can be constantly improved by regular | | | | need to retain the result of step 1 (42) |
| and sustained practice. | | | | momentarily, while we apply the next |
| PERCEPTION | | | | step (divide by 2). Some space in our |
| The terms "processing" and "perception" | | | | short-term memory is necessary to retain |
| are often used interchangeably. | | | | the results of step 1. |
| Before one can learn anything, | | | | Long-term memory: This refers to the |
| perception must take place, i.e. one has | | | | ability to retrieve information of |
| to become aware of it through one of the | | | | things learned in the past. |
| senses. Usually one has to hear or see | | | | Until the learning disabled develop |
| it. Subsequently one has to interpret | | | | adequate skills in recalling |
| whatever one has seen or heard. In | | | | information, they will continue to face |
| essence then, perception means | | | | each learning situation as though it is |
| interpretation. Of course, lack of | | | | a new one. No real progress can be |
| experience may cause a person to | | | | attained by either the child or the |
| misinterpret what he has seen or heard. | | | | teacher when the same ground has to be |
| In other words, perception represents | | | | covered over and over because the child |
| our apprehension of a present situation | | | | has forgotten. It would appear that the |
| in terms of our past experiences, or, as | | | | most critical need that the learning |
| stated by the philosopher Immanuel Kant | | | | disabled have is to be helped to develop |
| (1724-1804): "We see things not as they | | | | an effective processing system for |
| are but as we are." | | | | remembering, because without it their |
| The following situation will illustrate | | | | performance will always remain at a |
| how perception correlates with previous | | | | level much below what their capabilities |
| experience: | | | | indicate. |
| Suppose a person parked his car and | | | | Strangely, though, while memory is |
| walks away from it while continuing to | | | | universally considered a prerequisite |
| look back at it. As he goes further and | | | | skill to successful learning, attempts |
| further away from his car, it will | | | | to delineate its process in the learning |
| appear to him as if his car is gradually | | | | disabled are few, and fewer still are |
| getting smaller and smaller. In such a | | | | methods to systematically improve it. |
| situation none of us, however, would | | | | LOGICAL THINKING |
| gasp in horror and cry out, "My car is | | | | In his book "Brain Building" Dr. Karl |
| shrinking!" Although the sensory | | | | Albrecht states that logical thinking is |
| perception is that the car is shrinking | | | | not a magical process or a matter of |
| rapidly, we do not interpret that the | | | | genetic endowment, but a learned mental |
| car is changing size. Through past | | | | process. It is the process in which one |
| experiences we have learned that objects | | | | uses reasoning consistently to come to a |
| do not grow or shrink as we walk toward | | | | conclusion. Problems or situations that |
| or away from them. You have learned that | | | | involve logical thinking call for |
| their actual size remains constant, | | | | structure, for relationships between |
| despite the illusion. Even when one is | | | | facts, and for chains of reasoning that |
| five blocks away from one's car and it | | | | "make sense." |
| seems no larger than one's fingernail, | | | | The basis of all logical thinking is |
| one would interpret it as that it is | | | | sequential thought, says Dr. Albrecht. |
| still one's car and that it hasn't | | | | This process involves taking the |
| actually changed size. This learned | | | | important ideas, facts, and conclusions |
| perception is known as size constancy. | | | | involved in a problem and arranging them |
| Pygmies, however, who live deep in the | | | | in a chain-like progression that takes |
| rain forests of tropical Africa, are not | | | | on a meaning in and of itself. To think |
| often exposed to wide vistas and distant | | | | logically is to think in steps. |
| horizons, and therefore do not have | | | | Logical thinking is also an important |
| sufficient opportunities to learn size | | | | foundational skill of math. "Learning |
| constancy. One Pygmy, removed from his | | | | mathematics is a highly sequential |
| usual environment, was convinced he was | | | | process," says Dr. Albrecht. "If you |
| seeing a swarm of insects when he was | | | | don't grasp a certain concept, fact, or |
| actually looking at a herd of buffalo at | | | | procedure, you can never hope to grasp |
| a great distance. When driven toward the | | | | others that come later, which depend |
| animals he was frightened to see the | | | | upon it. For example, to understand |
| insects "grow" into buffalo and was sure | | | | fractions you must first understand |
| that some form of witchcraft had been at | | | | division. To understand simple equations |
| work. | | | | in algebra requires that you understand |
| A person needs to INTERPRET sensory | | | | fractions. Solving 'word problems' |
| phenomena, and this can only be done on | | | | depends on knowing how to set up and |
| the basis of past experience of the | | | | manipulate equations, and so on." |
| same, similar or related phenomena. | | | | It has been proven that specific |
| Perceptual ability, therefore, heavily | | | | training in logical thinking processes |
| depends upon the amount of perceptual | | | | can make people "smarter." Logical |
| practice and experience that the subject | | | | thinking allows a child to reject quick |
| has already enjoyed. This implies that | | | | and easy answers, such as "I don't |
| perception is a cognitive skill that can | | | | know," or "this is too difficult," by |
| be improved tremendously through | | | | empowering him to delve deeper into his |
| judicious practice and experience. | | | | thinking processes and understand better |
| MEMORY | | | | the methods used to arrive at a |
| A variety of memory problems are | | | | solution. |
| evidenced in the learning disabled. Some | | | | ************** |
| major categories of memory functions | | | | Susan du Plessis is an author of five |
| wherein these problems lie are: | | | | books on learning and learning |
| Receptive memory: This refers to the | | | | disabilities. Visit her website |
| ability to note the physical features of | | | | Audiblox: Overcoming Dyslexia, |
| a given stimulus to be able to recognize | | | | Dysgraphia, and other Learning |
| it at a later time. The child who has | | | | Disabilities for more information. |
| receptive processing difficulties | | | | |